The Roles of the Gods in Greek Myth

The Roles of the Gods in Greek Myth In Greek myth, there are many deities who specialize in different realms. According to Aeschylus’s Prometheus Bound and Homer’s Iliad, Greek gods do not only have power, but also have interactions with humans. Most of Greek deities make themselves or their intent known to humans through direct communication and indirect punishment. Zeus punishes Prometheus, the creator and protector of the mortals, for stealing fire from the gods and giving it to the human beings. Zeus, the king of the Gods, rules the world by his own laws.Although Prometheus is one of the most intelligent Titans and takes Zeus’s side in the Titanomachy, he cannot avoid being punished for the violation of Zeus’s will. After Zeus wins the war against the Titans, he plans to destroy humans completely and create another race (Aesch. Pro. 229-237). Since Prometheus opposes Zeus and shows excessive stubbornness and pride, Zeus demands that his servants, Stren gth and Violence, chain Prometheus to a mountain to show his power. Gods also communicate with human beings. For example, in Iliad, Athena comes down and tries to make peace between Agamemnon and Achilles.During the war between the Achaeans and Trojans, Achilles, one of the Achaean’s most important warriors, is angry with the commander Agamemnon for taking away his reward, Briseis, and stops fighting for the Achaeans. Athena hates the Trojans, so she talks with Achilles to convince him to stop fighting with Agamemnon and join the battle (Hom. Il. 1. 241-251). In addition, Athena gives the Achaean hero Diomedes incredible strength and the ability to see the gods so that Diomedes can be more powerful in the war (Hom. Il. 5. 1-3).She also encourages Diomedes and warns him not to challenge the gods except Aphrodite (Hom. Il. 5. 136-137). Although the Greek gods communicate with humans and help them in some ways, they are actually not morally upright. Most of time, they make decis ions based on their own interests. Almost all the Greek gods are involved in the outcome of Trojan War, which was originated from a quarrel between the goddesses Athena, Hera and Aphrodite. Zeus promises to help the Trojans not out of any profound moral consideration but rather because he owes Achilles’s mother Thetis a favor (Hom.Il. 1. 600-609). Hera and Athena passionately hate the Trojans, so they work together to help the Achaeans recover from their retreat. Hera even seduces Zeus so that she can help the Achaeans behind his back (Hom. Il. 14. 283-289). In addition, the River Xanthus is very angry when Achilles kills so many Trojans, whose corpses are choking him. But in the fight between Xanthus and Achilles, Poseidon, the god of sea, comes to help Achilles because he holds a grudge against the Trojans, who never paid him back for helping them build their city.Because of the Greek gods’ involvement in the Trojan War, it becomes quite chaotic. None of them are imp artial or fair to both sides of the war. They are very emotional and always try to fight against the people they hate. The same type of behavior occurs in Prometheus Bound. Zeus has no pity or concern for others. He sent eagles to attack Prometheus repeatedly (Aesch. Pro. 1022-1025). Still, he decides to free Prometheus finally because Prometheus agrees to offer him an oracle. Therefore, the Greek gods are selfish and do not obey a moral code at all.Zeus is not morally upright; however, as the king of the Olympian gods, he plays an important role in both divine and human interactions. The main theme of Homer’s Iliad is the wrath of Achilles. Though Achilles refuses to fight against the Trojans because of Agamemnon’s disrespect, he returns to the battle finally. This largely depends on Zeus, who is one of the moderators in this story. He agrees to punish the Achaeans when Achilles’s mother Thetis asks him to do so, which abates Achilles’s rage. In most par ts of the story, Zeus stays impartial and keeps other gods from intervening in the war.In addition, Zeus, as the symbol of authority and justice, never comes down onto the battlefield to interfere with the mortal conflicts, in contrast to the rest of the gods who fight for what they favor. For instance, Apollo and Artemis, who support the Trojans in the war, often give aid to the city of Troy. Zeus acts as a balance through the entire war. Since he is subordinate to Fates, he keeps the gods in order and prevents them from violating the Fates. Zeus allows some gods to go to the battlefield after Apollo joins the battle because he doesn’t want the Achaeans to win earlier than they are supposed to.Throughout the Trojan War, Zeus is the director who keeps the war move along the right track. He mostly remains neutral and plays a vital role in the divine and human interactions. The divine interactions between Zeus and other gods are related to human affairs. These connections can b e found in the relationship between king and subjects, male and female. All the Greek deities need to obey Zeus’s rules because he is the king of the gods, a powerful tyrant. However, Prometheus is an exception. He gives fire to mankind and is so stubborn that he refuses to make peace with Zeus (Aesch.Pro. 167-175). As a result, he is chained to a mountain, where other gods can see how humiliating he is. Agamemnon, the leader of the Achaean army is also selfish and arrogant, which is the same as Zeus. When one of his valuable warriors Achilles challenges his leadership, Agamemnon is so angry that he takes away Achilles’s reward (Hom. Il. 1. 378-382). So it is obvious that no matter in the Greek mythology or real world, the king always is endowed with power that he can control his territory and get whatever he wants.But there is a little different in the standing of male and female. Unlike ordinary women, the Greek female deities do have some power; for instance, Hera i s the goddess of marriage and women fertility; Aphrodite is the goddess of sexual attraction. While in mankind, Homer describes women as useless containers. Since they only consume food and do not produce, they are inferior and not able to speak their wills or make any decisions. In Iliad, Chryseis and Briseis, a pair of beautiful maidens is honored to Agamemnon and Achilles separately.When Chryseis’s father tries his best to get his daughter back, Agamemnon replaces Chryseis with Achilles’s lover Briseis. Chryseis and Briseis are treated as objects. Homer does not mention any of their words in the book because no one cares how they actually feel except their parents. Overall, the similarities between divine interactions and human affairs are that the kings are always powerful and the female is subservient to the male. Though Iliad is a story about ancient heroes, gods and goddesses, it does reflect the values and conditions of Greek society at that time.Iliad was writ ten around eighth century BC, the Archaic Period in Greek history. The main transition is the rise of polis and colonization in Greek society. In the book, all the gods are leaded by Zeus and obey his rules, which reflects that each polis has its own ruler who is not morally upright and tends to set up dictatorships, raise armies and attack other polies to expand his influence. Additionally, the human relationships are not well if we consider the relationship between Zeus and Hera. In the Trojan War, Hera absolutely backs up the Achaeans.So when Thetis asks Zeus to help the Trojans, he is hesitated; however, he finally agrees because he owes her (Hom. Il. 1. 619-635). Hera hears that and asks Zeus what’s his plan, but Zeus replies that she will be the first to know whatever is right for her (Hom. Il. 1. 644-660). So Hera is very angry and decides to seduce Zeus in order to help the Achaeans behind his back. From the myth, we can find that there is hardly any trust or promise between husband and wife. So it’s possible that husband and wife in real Greek family may cheat each other for different reasons.Furthermore, Zeus promises Thetis that he will give Achilles more glories, which reflects that honor can be one of the most important subjects during that time. People want glory so that they can be powerful in the society. In conclusion, the Greek gods always have power in different areas, but they still are not as powerful as Zeus who rules the world. They use different ways to show their power to the human beings, such as communication and punishment. However, these Greek gods including Zeus are not morally upright. They act on their own selfish purposes and sometimes cheat each other to get what they want.As the king of the gods, Zeus is crucial in the human and divine interactions. He can control the war and make those who challenge his authority like Prometheus to suffer. The depiction of the gods and divine interactions actually provides a re alistic view of human conditions. The rise of polis and colonization are the important themes in the Archaic Period. The king of the polis always has strong power and makes decisions based on his will. The warriors and leaders are usually male because women are considered to be useless and inferior, which is a little contrast to the Greek myth. The Roles of the Gods in Greek Myth The Roles of the Gods in Greek Myth In Greek myth, there are many deities who specialize in different realms. According to Aeschylus’s Prometheus Bound and Homer’s Iliad, Greek gods do not only have power, but also have interactions with humans. Most of Greek deities make themselves or their intent known to humans through direct communication and indirect punishment. Zeus punishes Prometheus, the creator and protector of the mortals, for stealing fire from the gods and giving it to the human beings. Zeus, the king of the Gods, rules the world by his own laws.Although Prometheus is one of the most intelligent Titans and takes Zeus’s side in the Titanomachy, he cannot avoid being punished for the violation of Zeus’s will. After Zeus wins the war against the Titans, he plans to destroy humans completely and create another race (Aesch. Pro. 229-237). Since Prometheus opposes Zeus and shows excessive stubbornness and pride, Zeus demands that his servants, Stren gth and Violence, chain Prometheus to a mountain to show his power. Gods also communicate with human beings. For example, in Iliad, Athena comes down and tries to make peace between Agamemnon and Achilles.During the war between the Achaeans and Trojans, Achilles, one of the Achaean’s most important warriors, is angry with the commander Agamemnon for taking away his reward, Briseis, and stops fighting for the Achaeans. Athena hates the Trojans, so she talks with Achilles to convince him to stop fighting with Agamemnon and join the battle (Hom. Il. 1. 241-251). In addition, Athena gives the Achaean hero Diomedes incredible strength and the ability to see the gods so that Diomedes can be more powerful in the war (Hom. Il. 5. 1-3).She also encourages Diomedes and warns him not to challenge the gods except Aphrodite (Hom. Il. 5. 136-137). Although the Greek gods communicate with humans and help them in some ways, they are actually not morally upright. Most of time, they make decis ions based on their own interests. Almost all the Greek gods are involved in the outcome of Trojan War, which was originated from a quarrel between the goddesses Athena, Hera and Aphrodite. Zeus promises to help the Trojans not out of any profound moral consideration but rather because he owes Achilles’s mother Thetis a favor (Hom.Il. 1. 600-609). Hera and Athena passionately hate the Trojans, so they work together to help the Achaeans recover from their retreat. Hera even seduces Zeus so that she can help the Achaeans behind his back (Hom. Il. 14. 283-289). In addition, the River Xanthus is very angry when Achilles kills so many Trojans, whose corpses are choking him. But in the fight between Xanthus and Achilles, Poseidon, the god of sea, comes to help Achilles because he holds a grudge against the Trojans, who never paid him back for helping them build their city.Because of the Greek gods’ involvement in the Trojan War, it becomes quite chaotic. None of them are imp artial or fair to both sides of the war. They are very emotional and always try to fight against the people they hate. The same type of behavior occurs in Prometheus Bound. Zeus has no pity or concern for others. He sent eagles to attack Prometheus repeatedly (Aesch. Pro. 1022-1025). Still, he decides to free Prometheus finally because Prometheus agrees to offer him an oracle. Therefore, the Greek gods are selfish and do not obey a moral code at all.Zeus is not morally upright; however, as the king of the Olympian gods, he plays an important role in both divine and human interactions. The main theme of Homer’s Iliad is the wrath of Achilles. Though Achilles refuses to fight against the Trojans because of Agamemnon’s disrespect, he returns to the battle finally. This largely depends on Zeus, who is one of the moderators in this story. He agrees to punish the Achaeans when Achilles’s mother Thetis asks him to do so, which abates Achilles’s rage. In most par ts of the story, Zeus stays impartial and keeps other gods from intervening in the war.In addition, Zeus, as the symbol of authority and justice, never comes down onto the battlefield to interfere with the mortal conflicts, in contrast to the rest of the gods who fight for what they favor. For instance, Apollo and Artemis, who support the Trojans in the war, often give aid to the city of Troy. Zeus acts as a balance through the entire war. Since he is subordinate to Fates, he keeps the gods in order and prevents them from violating the Fates. Zeus allows some gods to go to the battlefield after Apollo joins the battle because he doesn’t want the Achaeans to win earlier than they are supposed to.Throughout the Trojan War, Zeus is the director who keeps the war move along the right track. He mostly remains neutral and plays a vital role in the divine and human interactions. The divine interactions between Zeus and other gods are related to human affairs. These connections can b e found in the relationship between king and subjects, male and female. All the Greek deities need to obey Zeus’s rules because he is the king of the gods, a powerful tyrant. However, Prometheus is an exception. He gives fire to mankind and is so stubborn that he refuses to make peace with Zeus (Aesch.Pro. 167-175). As a result, he is chained to a mountain, where other gods can see how humiliating he is. Agamemnon, the leader of the Achaean army is also selfish and arrogant, which is the same as Zeus. When one of his valuable warriors Achilles challenges his leadership, Agamemnon is so angry that he takes away Achilles’s reward (Hom. Il. 1. 378-382). So it is obvious that no matter in the Greek mythology or real world, the king always is endowed with power that he can control his territory and get whatever he wants.But there is a little different in the standing of male and female. Unlike ordinary women, the Greek female deities do have some power; for instance, Hera i s the goddess of marriage and women fertility; Aphrodite is the goddess of sexual attraction. While in mankind, Homer describes women as useless containers. Since they only consume food and do not produce, they are inferior and not able to speak their wills or make any decisions. In Iliad, Chryseis and Briseis, a pair of beautiful maidens is honored to Agamemnon and Achilles separately.When Chryseis’s father tries his best to get his daughter back, Agamemnon replaces Chryseis with Achilles’s lover Briseis. Chryseis and Briseis are treated as objects. Homer does not mention any of their words in the book because no one cares how they actually feel except their parents. Overall, the similarities between divine interactions and human affairs are that the kings are always powerful and the female is subservient to the male. Though Iliad is a story about ancient heroes, gods and goddesses, it does reflect the values and conditions of Greek society at that time.Iliad was writ ten around eighth century BC, the Archaic Period in Greek history. The main transition is the rise of polis and colonization in Greek society. In the book, all the gods are leaded by Zeus and obey his rules, which reflects that each polis has its own ruler who is not morally upright and tends to set up dictatorships, raise armies and attack other polies to expand his influence. Additionally, the human relationships are not well if we consider the relationship between Zeus and Hera. In the Trojan War, Hera absolutely backs up the Achaeans.So when Thetis asks Zeus to help the Trojans, he is hesitated; however, he finally agrees because he owes her (Hom. Il. 1. 619-635). Hera hears that and asks Zeus what’s his plan, but Zeus replies that she will be the first to know whatever is right for her (Hom. Il. 1. 644-660). So Hera is very angry and decides to seduce Zeus in order to help the Achaeans behind his back. From the myth, we can find that there is hardly any trust or promise between husband and wife. So it’s possible that husband and wife in real Greek family may cheat each other for different reasons.Furthermore, Zeus promises Thetis that he will give Achilles more glories, which reflects that honor can be one of the most important subjects during that time. People want glory so that they can be powerful in the society. In conclusion, the Greek gods always have power in different areas, but they still are not as powerful as Zeus who rules the world. They use different ways to show their power to the human beings, such as communication and punishment. However, these Greek gods including Zeus are not morally upright. They act on their own selfish purposes and sometimes cheat each other to get what they want.As the king of the gods, Zeus is crucial in the human and divine interactions. He can control the war and make those who challenge his authority like Prometheus to suffer. The depiction of the gods and divine interactions actually provides a re alistic view of human conditions. The rise of polis and colonization are the important themes in the Archaic Period. The king of the polis always has strong power and makes decisions based on his will. The warriors and leaders are usually male because women are considered to be useless and inferior, which is a little contrast to the Greek myth.

Corrective Essay: Military Bearing and Respect

According to Field Manual 6-22, â€Å"Military Bearing is defined as having or projecting a commanding presence and a professional image of authority†. The United States Army is structured on several values and principles that it upholds, among these are military bearing, discipline and respect. Leaders should be able to make these big decisions with all his confidence projecting out with his military bearing. A leader should look like a leader, disciplined, confident, and has the skills and abilities to persuade and provide their subordinates with the motivation, direction and purpose so as to accomplish a mission without being easily rattled by problems that arises. The Three General Orders of a Soldier, The articles of UCMJ, as well as our own Soldiers Creed illustrates how a military service member should conduct himself or herself on a daily basis, on and off duty. Honor is to live up to all the Army values. Integrity is to do what is right, legally and morally. Be willing to do what is right even when no one is looking. It is our â€Å"moral compass† an inner voice. Army regulations and The Articles of the Uniform Code of Military Justice show us how a military service member should conduct themselves on a daily basis. Military bearing has many components that are involved such as self-discipline, discipline of others, taking appropriate actions for events or taskings, addressing superiors appropriately and dependability. Not just one thing can prove you have military bearing its takes being a professional and and a leader in all aspects of life to prove that you have military bearing. Self-discipline means that you have the ability to control yourself. If you do not have self-discipline you may be viewed as hot headed and unreliable. If you cant help maintain discipline of others it shows poor leader ship therefore making the unit from the lowest level to the highest level. Taking appropriate actions for events or taskings means that in the event that something bad happens contact the chain of command and the appropriate authorities so the situation can get handled. Dependability is a major aspect of military bearing. Without dependability, one can neither perform properly in the workspace nor be depended upon by their coworkers, or chain of command to carry out their military duties adequately. A military member is required to be punctual, and reliable. Duty requires a willingness to accept full responsibility for your actions and for your subordinate's performance. It also requires a leader to take the initiative and anticipate requirements based on the situation. Duty means accomplishing all assigned tasks to the best of your ability. The proper and faithful performance of duty is the standard. The value and efficiency of the soldier is measured, and the measure of his efficiency and value is not determined by the prominence of the duty which he performs. Military bearing is to conduct yourself with dignity and in such a manner to reflect credit upon the armed services. Military bearing exists when this individual is proud of their military service. When you exhibit military bearing you are showing lower enlisted soldiers how to act and giving them an example to follow. Knowing how to properly march, stand at attention, parade rest, as well as all other facing movements establishes one’s ability to follow orders precisely. A lot of self-discipline comes with having good military bearing, which explains and reinforces the necessity to have it. Not everyone has good military bearing. Military bearing and respect are something that you have to work on and maintain control of, you can earn it but if you do not work on a maintain control of it then you will lose the respect or bearing you may have earned. Having good military bearing means you are tactful and polite while also being neat in appearance and can carry out the highest level of professionalism. It's very important to follow directions, or else the world would be in chaos. Respect, especially in the Army is a very important value to live by. It is much more than just talking kindly and listening to someone. It is the process of taking into consideration someone’s emotions, feelings and needs. It is showing someone that you value their time; that you care what they have to say. Behavior and attitude will allow the person demanding respect to feel that respect. When we respect each other, there are fewer conflicts. Respect is not only shown verbally, but also by one’s behaviors and actions. If someone you respect asks you to do something, you should do it immediately and without hesitation. You should do it quickly. Earned respect builds a stronger relationship between people, can be more specific then demanded respect, and is more stable than demanded respect. Also, true respect must be built on experience, and therefor it is illogical to instantly demand it. Earned respect builds a stronger respect and a stronger relationship between people. So you should always be respectful to others so they will treat you the way you want to be treated.

Development and Training – Essay

Effective training plans teach employees the skills ND behaviors that help the organization achieve their defined goals. Struck is the number one specialty coffee retailer serving millions of people in 16,000 locations in 50 countries (Struck, 2010). Struck employees go through vigorous training to ensure that each cup of coffee Is brewed to perfection. While Struck may have a well-trained staff, errors can be made, and additional training may be needed.The needs assessment is the process of evaluating the organization, individual employees, and employees' tasks to determine what kind of training, if any, is necessary. An organizational analysis of Struck shows that It Is an organization that concentrates on serving a niche market and needs to continually update its workforce on specialized skill sets. Effective training objectives have three components and should include the following measurable performance standards: 1 A statement of what the employee Is expected to do, the perform ance or outcome. . A statement of the quality or level of performance that Is acceptable. 3. A statement of the conditions under which the trainee is expected to apply what he or she learned. Data gathered from the organization, and task analysis will help identify raining materials needed to develop an effective training program. Struck Is a successful company not only because it serves a great cup of coffee but also because the company has developed a great culture with a leading training program for its managers and employees.One of the first things that a new employee at Struck learns is that all employees are called partners. Struck calls their employees partners because they openly value and respect each partner and acknowledge that their success would not be possible without the contributions they make on a daily basis. Partners are coached on the Star Skills, three guidelines for on-the-job interpersonal relations: (1 ) maintain and enhance self-esteem, (2) listen and acknow ledge, and (3) ask for help (Struck, 2010).Struck has numerous proprietary processes and recipes so they do not often contract or outsource their training. Most of the training partners receive is hands-on and provided by experienced partners and the management team at the store. The bulk of a new partners training Is spent on proper beverage preparation. This training Involves such satellites as grinding the beans, steaming milk, learning to pull perfect shot of espresso, remembering the correct amount of shots and syrup pumps the different FIFO Arles require, Ana practice, practice, practice on making ten core coffee Diverges.Struck sets drink standards to be memorized and followed. Milk must be steamed to at least 150 degrees Fahrenheit but never more than 170 degrees unless the customer requests it to be hotter. Always pull a perfect espresso shot if the shot is shorter than 18 seconds or longer than 23 seconds it must be tossed out. Always have fresh coffee a new pot is to be b rewed every 20 minutes. If a customer is satisfied with his or her experience or beverage partners are empowered to compensate them with a Struck coupon for a free drink (Thompson & Strickland, 1999).Additional lessons are provided on how to clean the milk wand on the espresso machine and how to calibrate the espresso machines for the perfect grind. The amount of information that a new partner has to process can oftentimes be overwhelming so to help out they are provided with laminated recipe cards for all the drinks on the menu and a pocket-sized green apron book that covers the star skills and fits perfectly their green apron, online training for the cash register and loneliness standards, and the support of all the other partners on the floor.The training received by partners can seem intense but the teamwork and culture created leaves customers with such great impressions the often return Just for the enjoyable experience As the staff becomes seasoned, some of the training gets forgotten and mistakes happen. â€Å"In its campaign to revive the intimate, friendly feel of a neighborhood coffee shop, Struck orchestrated the closing of 7,100 of its American stores at precisely 5:30 p. M. Or a three-hour retraining session for employees† (Grumman, 2008, Para. 2). The training objective is primarily focused on recipe consistency so Struck decided their plan would be more effective by incorporating in-house expertise as part of the training medium. The program will combine the presentation and hands-on training methods where employees receive information individually, and in a group sessions to have the opportunity to actively practice the specific skills being taught.The group sessions allow employees to discuss new techniques to improve the taste and texture of drinks as well as share best practices for maintaining beverage consistency while adhering to the standards or espresso shots and milk quality. Refresher training is an excellent tool to keep seas oned staff trained on the basics and to reduce the amount of errors made. This type of training is very informal and can be done at the store as opposed to in a classroom. An on-the-spot correction is a type of refresher training that can be done relatively quickly.If an employee makes an error making a cup of coffee, he or she can be given refresher training immediately. Managers will have to ensure that this training is not done to demean the employee, but to re-inform him or her of the proper steps. Another on-the-spot correction that can be made is with customer service. Each employee is given four hours of customer service training before entering a store. Sometimes, the basics can be forgotten, and human nature can override training on any given day.In this case, managers can pull an employee aside and remind him on how important customer satisfaction is to Struck. Again, this is not meant to embarrass the employee, but simply to retrain the basics. It is important that refres her training be done at the store and not in a different location. On-the-spot corrections cannot be trained in a classroom because it loses its efficiency. This training needs to happen immediately (or a few hours) after an error NAS occurred so ten employees can learn ten proper steps quickly Ana prevent Torture errors of that nature.It is also important to note that employees learn better in their own environment and would be able to use their refresher training immediately. Once the training needs and objectives are identified, training materials are created, and the training medium is agreed upon the next step is implementation of the training process. The way people learn is an important factor to consider in the implementation process of any training program. Learning objectives must be communicated clearly and presented distinctly so that trainees link the subject matter to their Jobs and the organization's goals.Multiple delivery techniques can be used to train employees su ch as traditional presentations or lectures that are given in classroom settings, the use of computer-based training (CB) on-line, internships or work-study mentoring programs, simulation training, or hands on-the-Job training (JOT) techniques. The training context or physical environment should mirror the work environment. Training sessions and materials should use familiar terms, concepts, and examples.Any of the techniques Struck selects is dependent on their training objective, the materials covered, and the timeshare in which the employee is expected to develop the learned traits. When the course objectives call for presenting information on a specific topic to many trainees, classroom instruction is one of the least expensive and least time-consuming ways to accomplish the goal. The refresher training program Struck developed is centered primarily on JOT techniques and is expected to be more effective because the trainers will enhance heir lectures with Job-related examples an d trainees have opportunities for hands- on learning.The on-site instructors or facilitators are available to answer questions and give immediate corrective feedback. Evaluation is an integral part of the training and development process. Evaluation tools help to determine the effectiveness of the training programs and materials that employees receive. Evidence suggests that because of insufficient budget or time, lack of expertise, blind trust in training solutions or lack of methods and tools, the evaluations are often inconsistent or missing (Ma, 2006).At Struck it is all about the customer experience customer satisfaction is how Struck evaluates the effectiveness of their training processes. They have implemented a few processes to get feedback from their customers these include secret shoppers, customer comment cards, customer care phone number, and online surveys that print on random customer receipts throughout the day. All of the information is gathered together and sent dir ectly to the store management, the management to assess the training needs for their store then uses the comments and feedback provided.The first order of good service in the food industry is employee knowledge. Employees should know about the organizational goals, the products, and their preparations as well as the ability to share that knowledge with customers. If an employee does not know or understand what they are talking about they cannot sell or serve effectively (Turning, 2000). Struck offers a dizzying array of coffee drinks and expects their employees to be fully versed in how to make the drinks consistently because this is the foundation of the Struck concept.

What explains the widening and deepening of international peace Essay - 1

What explains the widening and deepening of international peace operations after the Cold War - Essay Example In this sense international stability relied on the premise that if state security is maintained, then the security of citizens will necessarily follow. Therefore international security relied on the anarchistic balance of power, a military build-up between the US and the Soviet Union which were the two superpowers, and on the absolute sovereignty of the nation-state. Security was seen as protection from invasion; executed during proxy conflicts using technical and military capabilities (Bajpai, 2000). When the Cold War came to an end in 1989 with the dismantling of the Berlin Wall, when the countries of Eastern Europe regained independence, and when finally the Soviet Union disintegrated, there was widespread feeling throughout the world that at long last universal peace had descended on Earth. The fear of a war in which weapons of mass destruction would be used had vanished. Cold War was an ideological war between the capitalist west led by the USA the communist east led by the Soviet Union. Cold war was characterized by arms struggle between these two sides with either side arming its allies in readiness for any eventuality. This sometimes led to wars with the two powers supporting the opposing side. On both sides of the Cold War, the trend seemed to indicate that the world was moving toward internationalism rather than nationalism. As a result of the threat of nuclear warfare, great emphasis on democracy and human rights, economic interdependence, and gradual acceptance of universal ideologies, it became fashionable to speak of the demise of ethnic and nationalist movements.Despite expectations to the contrary after the cold war, a fresh cycle of ethno political movements re-emerged in Eastern Europe, Central Asia, Africa, and many other parts of the world. In fact, with the end of the Cold War, which clearly increased international cooperation while decreasing the possibilities of inter-state wars, the main threat to peace does

Policy frame work Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Policy frame work - Essay Example This law only permitted marriage between two adults of different sex. (Cbc News, 2007)Argues that in 1965, a young man of 24 years confessed to the police that he had a strong urge for other men and that he had had sexual relationships with other men with fellow men long enough and he wasn’t willing to change .he was viewed as a law offender and was jailed for several years in Canada. In 1967, Pierre Trudeau proposed change on the general outlook of homosexuality in Canada. He wanted homosexuals to be seen as normal people and regarded the idea of the state meddling in the bedrooms of its citizens unnecessary. In December 16th 1977, Quebec was the first province in Canada to include homosexuality in its code of human rights. By 2001, almost all provinces of Canada except Alberta, island of Prince Edward and territories on the North West abolished criminal charges on homosexuality. In 1978, a press by the name of Pink Triangle was charged after being found guilty of possessing erotic material â€Å"men loving boys and boys loving men† for sale. It took them at least six years to solve this case at the courts and on 15th June 1982, a judge named Thomas Mercer gave a ruling that changed the view of homosexuality. "It is perfectly legal to advocate what in itself would be unacceptable to most Canadians." (Cbc News, 2007)The judge argued. In 1979, sexual orientation was added to the human rights act of Canada which was spearheaded by Canadian human rights commission. In Feb. 1981, at least 300 men were arrested in a crackdown by the police in Toronto and there was a mass action taken by about3000 people on the streets of Toronto to protest against the arrest.1985 saw the parliamentary committee release a report that stressed equality for all especially to the discriminated homosexuals. Homosexuals were treated with much despise, subjected to physical abuse, psychological oppression, and hate

No Title Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

No Title - Essay Example The investment level brings the height of variation in output of the economy. When the economy is at maximum employment level, workers are capable of demanding increase in wages (Owyang, pp. 604-616). The current US economy is encouraging with more jobs created. The recent statistics shows that 295,000 job opportunities were added by February this year. It was against the prediction by many economists who estimated approximately 235,000 job increase. There is a decline of five point five percent unemployment rate in US marking the least figure since 2008. There is an improvement compared to the past year that stood at 6.7%. The unemployment figure can be used to locate the state of the economy of US in the business cycle. Considering that there is a steady decline, it is true to say US is undergoing recovery after the past crisis they experienced (Khasnabis, pp.16-25). Last month’s figures were disappointing where there was an addition of 126,000 job opportunities in US. It is an indication that market labor is ultimately tripped up by a wider slowdown in the economy. Going to the business cycle it can be focused that the economy will hit the expansion phase (Khasnabis, pp.16-25). India has gone through rapid growth since the opening up of its economy in 1991. Policies of privatization were introduced making ten percent of the people come out poverty clutch. Currently, there is hope for the nation since they have registered some economic improvement. The analysis gives the position of India compared to other poor countries for a better understanding of the changes in the economy (Khasnabis, pp.16-25). India is a weak nation. There are various measures to be used including the provided data. It can be defined in terms of per capita expenditure of calorie intake by an individual and pay back the cost of survival. Benchmarking on the statistics provided, purchasing power variability is key in

Tbd Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Tbd - Essay Example In addition, Frank (with a large commercial law firm In Brussels) has helped negotiate a suitable site on the edge of the industrial area, just in a strategic position- industrial park of the town-which could most likely be a suitable location for the business. This will make it possible for the commissioning and construction of new factories for the company. It is possible to built friendships and customer base in Belgium as it has been the case in Holland. Business experts say that every business must grow slowly and it should be given enough time to do so. A good customer relationship is developed when the company (ESC Electronica) provides better services for the people in the new country. In doing so, the company will be able to form a strong customer base just as it has been the case in the native country. In addition, Jan is not leaving his business entirely but it will be possible for him to conquer other international markets for the betterment of the company. As for the case of family matters, it will be prudent for Marguereet to combine her family life and the business which will keep the whole family financially stable. The best approach you (Jan) can use is to call family meeting and discuss the broad aspects of the business starting with the business plan, goals and objectives, family issues (togetherness, retirement and ot her external factors that need to be addressed affecting the family) and more pressing challenges and opportunities for the businesses in context of increased competition. The strategy of bringing the whole family on board is considered a best option in a case where the family is undergoing any kind of turmoil. Failure to convince the children for example Frank need to put his priorities right for further future prospects. Marguereet is already a graduate with enough knowledge on

American History Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

American History - Term Paper Example Unequal conditions among the blacks and the whites were rampant in almost every sector and part within the country. Considering that the blacks received unfair treatment than their white counterparts, the demonstrations were justified. Considering the cause of reasons behind these protests, i would advice that it is right to support the demonstration as opposed to the white students during that period who failed to support their fellow black students’ demonstrators. The next incidence that occurred in the following year relates to the Weather Underground Organization formation. The organization founded at Ann Arbor branch of Michigan University aimed at achieving a democratic society by students. The primary objective as evidenced through the naming of the faction as Students for a Democratic Society was to work as a radical left wing that would materialize and succeed in overthrowing the American government. October 8, 1969 characterized the first demonstration organized by t he group in Chicago that was deliberate to coincide with the trials of Chicago eight. The group embarked on bombing demonstrations, jail breaks among other ill forms of demonstrations. The attacks mostly focused on government buildings as well as various banks while evacuation warnings were also given to others. It is important to note that these students’ demonstrators grew to become criminals over time and facilitated bombings or became parts of bombings after their engagement in 1969. Although the authorities failed to engage them forcefully to abandon their demonstrations, deaths among the students were reported on various occasions. My opinion relating to such engagements falls against joining such students owing the acts of violence the group engaged in, it is ill-advising for any student of the current multi-cultural and civilized U.S to participate in such demonstrations. From

Law in the media Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Law in the media - Essay Example File-sharing networks are diffuse and decentralized, therefore it is difficult to pinpoint who is supplying works to the public. Moreover, new technologies, such as BitTorrent, complicate matters because only bits of files are downloaded from a swarm of people, and this swarm of people may not be considered to be the individuals making the work publicly available. BitTorrent also relies upon temporary files that are created, bit by bit, before the permanent file is assembled, and the CDPA 1988 does not cover these temporary files. Another issue is that there are copyright protections that may be used, and the CDPA 1988 does not make it illegal to circumvent these protections. For these reasons, it seems that the CDPA 1988 is not keeping up with the ever-changing digital world, and should not be used by artists who are harmed by file-sharing and BitTorrent, as it is difficult to apply the Act to these copyright infringements. Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 A copyright is, in a nutshell, an exclusive right that someone can own to â€Å"copy the work; issue copies of the work in public; perform, show or play the work in public; to broadcast the work or include it in a cable programme service; or to make an adaption of the work or do any of the above in relation to an adaptation.† (Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 II(16)(1)(a-e)). ... Copyrights expired after 50 years. (Copyright, Designs and Patents act 1988 I(12)(1)). Basically, if you create a piece of music, you own that piece of music for fifty years. You, and you alone, have the right to copy your piece of music, issue copies to the public or perform the music, broadcast it or adapt it. It is yours. If you wrote the lyrics, then you own the lyrics. If you wrote the music, then the music is yours. If you performed the music, then you own the recording of the live performance. Sound recordings are owned by the maker of the recording. (MIPI). The Problem with The CDPA in the age of the Internet The CDPA, having been crafted in 1988, could not have foreseen the developments that implicate copyrights in the Internet Age. For instance, one of the major copyright infringements is something that was not explicitly covered by the CDPA – illegal file-sharing, which is tantamount to Internet piracy. Internet piracy is the cause of falling CD sales across the boa rd, as sales have steadily fallen year to year since piracy began. (Music Industry Blames Huge Illegal Download Market for Ever-falling Sales). The largest academic survey, commission by the University of Hertfordshire found that teenagers and students have, on average, more than 800 illegally copied songs on their digital music players. (Sabbagh, 2008). The problem is not just with peer to peer networks, but also in the common practice of lending CD to a mate and allowing them to copy the CD. This has the same chilling effect as does the illegal downloading of songs off the Internet, and hurts artists and the industry just the same. (Music Copyright – Featuring Jamelia). One of the problems with illegal downloads is

Transformation of Shell - 4 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Transformation of Shell - 4 - Essay Example From the results of a series of exercises conducted by several private management consultants, the company began to shift from their strict business attitude to social and environmental performance. As a result, the leadership attitude of the officials also changed; they geared up for taking more responsibilities. Similarly the Shell revised ‘General business Principles’ with regard to the results obtained from the integrity works. In addition to this, the company developed its own Web Site facilities in order to get timely feedback and suggestions from the public. Likewise, the shell international conducted ‘written and face to face’ conversations with stakeholders to remove their dissatisfaction. These changes were necessary for the Shell international since they had suffered a lot of internal as well as external problems such as Brent Spar issue, Nigerian human rights, and Shareholder campaigns. The resistance of Greenpeace to the disposal of Brent Spar at sea attained media coverage which reduced the company’s reputation among the public. The Shell also faced a consumer boycott which caused the decline of their sales volume to a large extent. Similarly â€Å"Shell’s return on average capital employed (ROACE), a common measure of performance in the petroleum industry, showed that the company lagged behind many of its competitors† (Lawrence, 2000, p.533). In addition to this the Shell executives had to compete with discount retailers at retail level which led them to reduce their efficiency in business operations. At the earlier stages the company had followed a matrix form of organization which resulted in red tapism and delayed decision making. The close analysis would make us think about the essential changes Shell required for taking advantage of maximum opportunities from the business. The Shell international had forgotten the basic principle that customers are the crucial part of a business without whom a business can

The Motives of Enculturation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

The Motives of Enculturation - Essay Example   Markedly, upon interviewing two individuals from different cultures; a Guatemala and Tibetan, it’s evident that enculturation, measured by the career values and choices made are directly influenced by family cultures. The first interviewee was a Tibetan registered nurse, working in a public hospital. For confidential purposes, the interviewees’ fine details including the hospital’s name are withheld. Being born in late 1979 his parents were typical Tibetans who lived in the southern parts of USA. He was brought up in a rural set-up, lived in the discrimination era and hence spent most of his childhood time with Asian natives. Currently, the interviewee acknowledged that he lives in a completely different environment, amidst blacks, Asians, Latin natives and whites, both at workplace and neighborhood: hence his own culture has become less important. The second interviewee was a Guatemalan woman, working in a cereal production farm. The lady in question was ambitious, social and maintained a cheerful face all through the interview time, responding to the questions precisely and splendidly. Contrary to her cultural obligation, the lady confirmed that she was a senior agricultural officer in the firm she worked for. Similar to the Tibetan guy, the lady was also brought up in suburban areas, was in her mid-thirties, almost turning 35, with her parents being traditionally encompassed. She was a graduate, the only girl in a family of three, and illiterate parents. Both respondents appeared to be positive about the interview. They cheerfully responded to the questions as it was a platform to confess the advantages that accrued from their enculturation process.  Ã‚  

Quaid-E-Azam Essay Example for Free

Quaid-E-Azam Essay Quaid-i-Azam Mohammad Ali Statesman was hatched inKarachion the 25th Dec, 1876. His antecedent, Jinnah Poonjah, was a big distributer ofKarachi. Though a very sumptuous businessperson, Mr. Poonjah desirable to devote virtuous pedagogy to his son and book him absent from acting. Mr. Mohammad AH Solon received his proto instruction inKarachiandBombay. He passed his Mesmerize Scrutiny in 1891. In his schooltime days he was very painstaking in his studies. He observed the rules of correction. He was also really punctual m attending. All these nibbed to his incoming greatness. For his complete qualities, he was really often cherished by his teachers and fellow-students. His fathers person, Mr. Federick Croft, revealed signs of a enthusiastic man in him. He advised his hypostasis to transfer him toEnglandfor higher studies. Accordingly Mr. Statesman socialist forEnglandin 1892. There he was admitted into theLincolnsInnand obtained the laurels of Bar-at-Law. Mr Statesman stayed in England for tetrad period. He premeditated the ways of the Humanities people. He was rattling more impressed to maturate that all of them, colourful or bad, admired their motherland. There he came low the influence of a loyal Asian, Dababhoy Nooroj. After having successfully through his teaching, Mr. Jinnah returned to Indiain 1896. At that second his fathers concern was not gushing fountainhead. So to get money for the kinfolk, he started practise inKarachi. But he could not do cured. He left Karachi and went to Bombay to try his hazard there. Here, too, his practice was unsharpened for leash geezerhood. At worst, he conventional the couple as Ordinal Administration Magistrate of Bombay. But he was overconfident that he would do excavation as a lawyer. So he gave up the copulate after any experience minute he was established as a distinguished attorney. His laurels spread far and stretching. In 1905, Mr. Solon came in snuggled communication with Gopal Krishna Gokhale. Mr. Gokhale was then the president of the Amerindic Soul Congress. Shortly he became its most copernican person. He was titled the Ambassador of Hindu-M .turn Unity. But he was disenchanted in 1930. For he then realised that the only objective of the Congress was to give Religion judge inIndia. He, thus, distributed himself from the Congress. He devoted himself in organising the Muslims. The Muslims were then at their lowest ebb-politically, socially and economically. His,, leadership, kindled a new-imagination among the frustrated Muslims. He created semipolitical cognisance among the Muslims of India. It was due to his management and leaders the Muslims regained their confidence. Each and every Moslem responded to his clarion exact. And they, with one line demanded a asunder Declaration was adoptive. The try for Pakistan is a tale of a uninterrupted essay against a boniface of obstacles and it was his con trol and activity which provided for us a bulwork of posture at these tall nowadays. The creation of Pakistan was due to the untiring receive and zeal of Quaid-i-Azam. He won Pakistan by his irrefutable arguments. He is titled the Ascendant of the Nation. For similar a theological, he acquired a land for us. Tho in destroyed health, he had to get the prime Governor-Generalship of Pakistan. He died in attach on the 11th Sept, 1948.

Genotoxicity of Endodontic Irrigants and Medicaments

Genotoxicity of Endodontic Irrigants and Medicaments Abstract Genotoxicity describes a deleterious action on a cells genetic material affecting its integrity. This includes both certain chemical compounds and certain types of radiation. Genotoxic substances are all those with affinity to interact with DNA which is not proof of their dangerousness to humans, but does render them potentially mutagenic or carcinogenic. This review will address the genotoxicity of endodontic irrigants, medicaments, and sealers. It has been postulated that exposure of living tissues to cytotoxic agents can result in chronic cell injury, compensatory cell proliferation, hyperplasia, irritation, degeneration or tissue necrosis (1) and ultimately tumor development (2, 3). It is likely that proliferation may increase the risk of mutations within target cells and also be important in selective clonal expansion of exogenously or endogenously initiated cells from pre-neoplastic foci and eventually tumors (2). Thus, the DNA damage may diminish the self-repairing potential of tissue (4). In light of these considerations, genotoxicity and cytotoxicity assays gained widespread acceptance as an important and useful indicator of carcinogenicity. Definition of genotoxicity In genetics, genotoxicity describes a deleterious action on a cells genetic material affecting its integrity. This includes both certain chemical compounds and certain types of radiation. Genotoxic substances are all those with affinity to interact with DNA which is not proof of their dangerousness to humans, but does render them potentially mutagenic or carcinogenic (5). Genotoxicity of root canal irrigants Sodium hypochlorite Sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) is recommended as the main endodontic irrigant because of its ability to dissolve organic matter together with its broad antimicrobial action (6). NaOCl is commercially available as aqueous solutions with concentrations ranging from 1% to 15% and having an alkaline pH with values around 11 (7). Sodium hypochlorite has a wide range activity against both Gram positive and Gram negative bacteria. It is the strongest antifungal agent among root canal irrigations and medications. Furthermore, it is the only root canal irrigant that can destroy the microbial biofilm effectively (6, 7). Hamaguchi and Tsyutsui (8) showed that NaOCl was not genotoxic to mamalian cells. Hagiwara et al. (9) showed that sodium hypochlorite induced chromosome aberrations in Syrian hamster embryo (SHE) cells when treated in the presence of exogenous metabolic activation. Aubut et al. (10) revealed that neutralizing a 2.5% NaOCl solution did not induce any genotoxic effect. Marins et al. (11) showed that NaOCl did not induce any genotoxic effect. Chlorhexidine CHX is a synthetic cationic bis-guanide that consists of two symmetric 4-cholorophenyl rings and two biguanide groups connected by a central hexamethylene chain. CHX is a positively charged hydrophobic and lipophilic molecule that interacts with phospholipids and lipopolysaccharides on the cell membrane of bacteria and then enters the cell through some type of active or passive transport mechanism (12). Its efficacy is due to the interaction of the positive charge of the molecule and the negatively charged phosphate groups on microbial cell walls (12), thereby altering the cells osmotic equilibrium. This increases the permeability of the cell wall, which allows the CHX molecule to penetrate into the bacteria. CHX is a base and is stable as a salt. The most common oral preparation, chlorhexidine gluconate, is water-soluble and at physiologic pH, it readily dissociates and releases the positively charged chlorhexidine component (12). At 0.2% concentration, due to the leakage of low mol ecular weight substances(potassium and phosphorous) from the bacterial cell wall, CHX is bacteriostatic. On the other hand, at 2% concentration, CHX is bactericidal, as precipitation of the cytoplasmic contents occurs and resulting in cell death (13). Ribeiro et al. (14) revealed that chlorhexidine digluconate is able to induce primary DNA damage in leukocytes and in oral mucosal cells, but no chromosome breakage or loss in erythrocytes. Another study indicated that CHX in 0.01% and 1% concentrations did not induce DNA damage. Yeung et al. (15) stated that potential genotoxicity and tissue damage when extruded into the periradicular tissue and at higher concentrations should be considered during periodontal and endodontic practice. Li et al. (16) revealed that CHX-induced genotoxicity on macrophages may be via reactive oxygen species generation. MTAD BioPure (Dentsply, Tulsa Dental, Tulsa, OK, USA), otherwise known as MTAD, was introduced by Torabinejad et al. in 2003 (17). It is composed of 3% doxycycline, 4.25% citric acid and a detergent (0.5% Polysorbate 80) (17). Marins et al. (18) assessed the genotoxicity of MTAD using single cell gel (comet) assay. Results showed that the BioPure MTAD was able to promote DNA breakage in CHO cells only at the highest concentration tested as well as to induce significant increase in tail moment at all tested concentrations in murine fibroblasts. Another study revealed that MTAD did not cause cell death, but presented genotoxic effects (19). EDTA EDTA (Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid) refers to the chelating agent with the formula (HO2CCH2)2NCH2CH2N(CH2CO2H)2. This amino acid is widely used to sequester di- and tri-valent metal ions. EDTA binds to metals via four carboxylate and two amine groups. EDTA forms specially strong complexes with Mn(II), Cu(II), Fe(III), and Co(III). EDTA is mostly synthesised from 1,2-diaminoethane (ethylenediamine), formaldehyde (methanal), water and sodium cyanide. This yields the tetra sodium salt, which can be converted into the acidic forms by acidification (20, 21). EDTA is a polyamino carboxylic acid and a colourless, water-soluble solid. It is widely used to dissolve limescale. Its usefulness arises due to its role as a hexadentate ligand and chelating agent, i.e. its ability to sequester metalions such as Ca2+ and Fe3+. After being bound by EDTA, metal ions remain in solution but exhibit diminished reactivity. EDTA is produced as several salts, notably disodium EDTA and calcium disodium EDTA. The compound was first described in 1935 by Ferdinand Munz, who prepared the compound from ethylenediamine and chloroacetic acid (22). Today, EDTA is mainly synthesised from ethylenediamine (1,2-diaminoethane), formaldehyde, and sodium cyanide (22). EDTA reacts with the calcium ions in dentine and forms soluble calcium chelates. EDTA demineralizes dentine to a depth of 20–30 ÃŽ ¼m in 5 min (23). According to Heindorff et al. (24) EDTA influences chromosome breakage by mutagenic agents. In particular, when applied in combination with chemical mutagens, EDTA enhances mutagen-induced aberration frequencies. Furthermore, they reported that EDTA affects the inhibition of DNA synthesis in primary cultures of mammalian cells. This may be due to impairment of enzymes involved in DNA replication. Using single cell gel (Comet)assay, Marins et al. (25) showed that EDTA did not produce genotoxic effects. Iodine potassium iodide (IKI) Iodine was first discovered in seaweed in the early 1800s. Although its exact mode of action is not fully known, it is thought to induce cell death nonspecifically due to the oxidizing effects of free iodine on SH-OH- and NH groups of amino acids and on double bonds of unsaturated fatty acids. Iodine is highly efficient microbicide to a wide variety of bacterial, fungal and viral infections (26). Potassium iodide (KI) is a compound made of 76% of iodine and 23% of the alkali metal potassium by weight. KI is prepared by reacting iodine with a hot solution of potassium hydroxide, the product being subsequently reduced to iodide by heating the dry reaction mixture with carbon. Another form of iodine compounds is IKI. The solution can be prepared by mixing 2 g of iodine in 4 g of KI; this mixture then is dissolved in 94 ml of distilled water (26). Poul et al. (27) assessed the genotoxic effects of potassium iodate in vitro using the alkaline comet assay and the cytokinesis-block micronucleus assay on CHO cells. Results showed that potassium chlorate as well as potassium iodide, bromide and chloride did not induced DNA damage in the alkaline comet assay for doses up to 10 mM. In another study, Hikiba et al. (28) assessed the effect of iodine and iodoform on chromosome aberrations using Syrian hamster embryo (SHE) cells and found that iodine induced chromosome aberrations and iodoform induced no genotoxicity. Using the comet assay and chromosome aberration test to characterize the genotoxic potency of povidone-iodine within 4 h of contact with CHO-K1 cells, Muller et al. (29) found no chromosomal damage. In another study, Hedayati et al. (30) showed that incubation of lymphocytes with (131)I induced genotoxicity, which was reflected by an increase in micronuclei frequency. Genotoxicity of intracanal medicaments Calcium hydroxide Calcium hydroxide [Ca(OH)2 ] was originally introduced to the field of endodontics by Herman in 1920 as a pulp-capping agent. It is a white odorless powder with the formula Ca(OH)2, and a molecular weight of 74.08 (31). Calcium hydroxide has low solubility in water (about 1.2 gL-1 at 25 C), which decreases as the temperature rises. The dissociation coefficient of Ca(OH)2 (0.17) permits a slow, controlled release of both calcium and hydroxyl ions. The low solubility is a good clinical characteristic as a long period is necessary before it becomes soluble in tissue fluids when in direct contact with vital tissues (32). It has a high pH (about 12.5-12.8), is insoluble in alcohol and is chemically classified as a strong base, it main actions come from the ionic dissociation of Ca2+ and OH- ions and their effect on vital tissues, generating the induction of hard tissue deposition and being antibacterial. Ca(OH)2 dissociates into calcium and hydroxyl ions on contact with aqueous fluids. Ca (OH)2 in water has a thixotropic behavior (33). According to Ribeiro et al. (34) calcium hydroxide do not promote DNA damage in mammalian cells. In another study, Ribeiro et al. (35) revealed that calcium hydroxide was not able to modulate alkylation-induced genotoxicity or oxidative DNA damage as depicted by the single cell gel (comet) assay. MTA MTA is a mixture of a refined Portland cement and bismuth oxide and trace amounts of SiO2, CaO, MgO, K2SO4, and Na2SO4 (36). Portland cement is a mixture of dicalcium silicate, tricalcium silicate, tricalcium aluminate, gypsum, and tetracalcium aluminoferrite (37). Gypsum, and to a lesser extent, tetracalcium aluminoferrite are important determinant of setting time (37). MTA contains fewer toxic heavy metals, has a longer working time, and have undergone additional processing/purification than regular Portland cements (36). The MTA powder is mixed with supplied sterile water in a 3:1 powder/liquid ratio and it is recommended that a moist cotton pellet be temporarily placed in direct contact with the material and left until a follow-up appointment (38). Upon hydration, MTA materials form a colloidal gel that solidifies to a hard structure in approximately 3–4h, with moisture from the surrounding tissues purportedly assisting the setting reaction (38). Hydrated MTA has an initia l pH of 10.2, which rises to 12.5 three hours after mixing (39). Using single cell gel (comet) assay, Ribeiro et al. (40) detected no DNA damage after a treatment of cells by MTA and Portland cements for concentrations up to 1000  µ/ml. In another study, Ribeiro et al.(41) demonstrated that regular and white MTA did not produce genotoxic effects at 1 to 1000  µgmL-1 FOR 3 H AT 37 C. Another study using Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells indicated that that MTA and Portland cements are not genotoxins and are not able to induce cellular death (42). Braz et al. (43) assessed the genotoxic effects of MTA and Portland cements in peripheral lymphocytes from 10 volunteers by the alkaline single cell gel (comet) assay. Findings failed to detect the presence of DNA damage after a treatment of peripheral lymphocytes by MTA and Portland cements for concentrations up to 1000 mug mL(-1). Camargo et al. (44) revealed that regular and white MTA preparations did not negatively influence cell survival or reactive oxygen species production. Ding et al. (45) show ed that MTA and calcium silicate possessed no genotoxic effect. According to Zeferino et al. (46) MTA as well as Portland cement+15% bismuth oxide were not genotoxic. Genotoxicity of root canal sealers For assessment of the genotoxic potential of any material, it is recommended to perform a series of in vitro tests. At least two assays, investigating different endpoints, shall use mammalian cells. For cytotoxic and bactericidal compounds, as many endodontic  sealers appear to be, care must be taken in the test set up: For a proper evaluation the selected test concentrations used for genotoxic effects must be below the concentrations where toxic effects are found (47). Ørstavik and Hongslo (48) showed that extracts of a synthetic polymer material, based on epoxy-bis-phenol A, induced mutations in Salmonella typhimurium TA 100 as did extracts of the epoxy-bis-phenol A resin alone. Formaldehyde, an active ingredient from one of the ZnO-based materials, induced mutations in both Salmonella typhimurium TA 98 and TA 100. The mutagenic activity of formaldehyde as well as of the epoxy material was reduced in the presence of rat liver microsomes. Schwikl et al. (49) showed that eluates of mixed AH26 were mutagenic, and their genotoxicity was strongly depended on the setting time. The number of mutants after exposure to eluates of unset AH26 was enhanced approximately 7- to 10-fold. However, the mutagenic activity of the mixed material was clearly reduced after a setting time of 1 wk. Physiological saline eluates of the mixed AH26 were not found to be mutagenic. Dimethyl sulfoxide eluates of the liquid component of AH26 elicited mutagenic effects similar to the freshly mixed material; eluates made in physiological saline were barely mutagenic at a 10-fold higher concentration. Leyhausen et al. (50) showed that AH-Plus revealed no genotoxicity and mutagenicity. Epoxy-based sealers are also mutagenic in mammalian cell mutation assays. Ersev et al. (51) showed that silver-free AH26 set for 24 h were weakly mutagenic in Salmonella typhimurium TA100. They further showed that silver-free AH26 might contain small amounts of two mutagenic substances: bisphenol A diglycidyl ether and formaldehyde. Tai et al. (52) revealed that root canal sealers containing formaldehyde and bisphenol A diglyether proved to be not only cytotoxic but also genotoxic. Miletic et al. (53) found no mutagenicity found for AH26 and AH Plus sealers on human lymphocytes in highly controlled conditions in vitro. Formaldehyde is released from some epoxy-based sealers with a maximum after 2 days, even though the amount is much less than that of paraformaldehyde containing zinc oxide-eugenol sealers (54). It was believed that the leakage of formaldehyde and bisphenol- A diglycidyl ether from the epoxy-sealers contributed to the mutagenic effects (49, 55). Formaldehyde is classified as a carcinogen in animals, whereas there exists only limited evidence for carcinogenic effects in man (56). There is also limited evidence for animal carcinogenicity from bisphenol-A diglycidyl ether and no adequate data for the evaluation of human cancer risk for this compound (57). Considering the limited exposure of these compounds from endodontic epoxy sealers and the lack of definitive assessment by the IARC, it seems unlikely that such sealers contribute to an increased risk of cancer in patients. However, the high level of paraformaldehyde in zinc oxide-eugenol. Using Comet assay, Huang et al. () showed that the zinc oxide eugenol-based sealers  (Canals, Canals-N, and Tubilseal) did not always cause a dose-dependent increase in genotoxicity. The resin-based sealers (Topseal, AH 26, and AH Plus) caused a dose-dependent increase in genotoxicity, but no such effect was seen with the calcium hydroxide-based sealer (Sealapex) (47).

The Concepts Of Participation In Governments Politics Essay

The Concepts Of Participation In Governments Politics Essay Participation is a concept that has been continually contested within the academic literature. The term has sparked a lot of debate and become an important concept relating to democracy and justice. Participation has been characterised as a vehicle for enabling citizen interaction and citizen power. Cornwall (2008) has described participation as a malleable concept, suggesting that the concept can denote itself to any situation in which people are involved. This however has created a significant limitation for the applicability of participation in natural resources management. Passive participation has increasingly become more evident within environmental management through processes such as tokenism and consultation. The following essay will examine and critically evaluate the different typologies of participation. Due to the variety of typologies proposed within the literature, only the frameworks proposed by Sherry Arnstein, Jules Pretty and Sarah White will be critically evaluate d. Environmental examples of participation will then be illustrated in order to determine the extent to which participation as a malleable concept is a strength or limitation for natural resource management. Sherry Arnstein provided one of the first models of public participation. Arnsteins Ladder of Participation was published in 1969, and sought to summarize the context of American public planning at the time (Bishop and Davis, 2002). Public participation and power sharing during this time consisted of an us and them approach (ref). At the centre of this philosophy, the ideals of democracy were broken. Arnstein suggested that power had not equally been distributed amongst all members of society (ref). As a result, Arnstein advocated for a framework in which the planning process adequately took into consideration the ideals and opinions of public citizens (Hayward et al., 2004). Arnsteins model comprised of a ladder, which metaphorically denoted levels of citizen participation. Each ascending level of the ladder, described as rungs, characterised a level of influential power citizens could have within the planning process (Arnstein, 1969). Arnsteins ladder ultimately consisted of eight rungs, therefore, describing eight typologies of participation. At the bottom of Arnsteins ladder is Manipulation. Arnstein described this level of participation as an unauthentic form of citizen participation. At this level of the rung, power graspers such as politicians were considered by Arnstein to deform the processes of public relations (Litva et al., 2002). Arnstein suggested that citizens were often placed on advisory boards with the purpose of authorities attempting to educate them about particular issue (ref). Arnstein believed that this level of participation was somewhat illusionary, in the sense that minority groups were often targeted and manipulated by power holders (ref). Much of the decision making powers still remain within the hands of authorities, and ethnic groups or special interest groups were simply forced to comply with the decision that had already been made (Whitman, 1994). The next rung on Arnsteins ladder is a form of participation labelled as Therapy. Therapy is advocated by Arnstein as another form of illusionary ci tizen participation. Arnstein suggested that authoritarians such as mental health experts, social workers and politicians view those as powerless as mentally incapable (Shier, 2006). Therefore, making citizens engage in sessions of therapy and reform. Arnstein suggested that what made this form of citizen participation illusionary is that an extensive amount of spotlight is placed on curing citizens of their existing perceptions or opinions (McDonald, 1988). Less effort is focused on changing the power struggles that exist within societies which shape the current perceptions and opinions evident within specific classes of people (ref). Infroming is the next rung on Arnsteins Ladder. Arnstein characterised this level of participation as a way of legitimizing public participation through informing people of their rights and responsibilities (ref). However, more often than never, the flow of information had predominately focused on officials providing citizens with information through the use of various media, newsletters and reports (ref). This one way flow of information often did not provide citizens with an opportunity to voice their concerns, or provide officials with any feedback (ref). Therefore, ultimately decreasing the level of influence citizens are able to exert upon planning projects. The fourth rung on Arnsteins Ladder is Consultation. This is arguably the first instance in which the concept of consultation had been used within a planning context (ref). To further legitimize the process of public participation, Arnstein suggested that the opinions of citizens needed to be taken into account (ref). Meetin gs, public hearings and stakeholder reports had become the most common forums for enabling consultation amongst specific groups of people. Consultation consists more of just asking citizens about their views. The process is only valuable if further work is undertaken to adequately change policy structures in order the meet the needs of citizens (ref). Genuine consultation would therefore, consist of systematic meetings which can provide an open loop of communication for both authorities and citizens (ref). The Partnership rung on Arnsteins Ladder portrays the redistribution of powers amongst citizens and authorities. Ideally, at this level of participation, the ability to make decisions is left in the hands of both the public and private sector (ref). Partnership can be seen to effective when the citizens themselves are equipped with resources and finances. This can help community groups to barter with politicians and allow citizens to have an influence over project plans (ref). Citizen power increases further up Arnsteins ladder, with Delegated Power being a form of participation where citizens dominate the decision making process (ref). In this instance, the public would have assumed full responsibility and power over a specific project or plan. Such a circumstance is often reached when the public themselves hold significant trump cards, and are prepared to take full accountability for the outcomes of a particular programme (ref). The ultimate form of citizen power is characterised b y Arnstein as Citizen Control (more). Arnsteins Ladder provides a good explanation of the interactions between citizens and authorities. Though simplistic, the model has become an influential pillar within debates surrounding participation. Arnsteins metaphorical depiction of participation as power has influenced policy processes across the globe. Participation as evolved as an important mechanism for stakeholder engagement and community involvement (ref). Since the publication of the model in the late 1960s, many criticisms regarding Arnsteins typologies of participation have arisen (Lane, 2005). Arnsteins typology attempts to highlight the differences between the powerless and the powerful. It has been asserted that Arnstein does not consider the obstacles which may become apparent in achieving different levels of participation (Arnstein, 1969; Collins and Ison, 2006; more). Arnstein (1969) has suggested that there are obstacles that need to be overcome by both the citizens and the authorities. Authorities for instance need to overcome obstacles such as racism and be willing to shift the scales of power (Arnstein, 1969). Citizens in contrast need a knowledge base and resources to facilitate a strong and collective standing within society (Arnstein, 1969). Critics have also suggested that Arnsteins ladder may not be a realistic representation of participation (Tritter and McCallum, 2006). Arnstein categorised participation into eight rungs. In the real world however, there may be several more levels of participation occurring within society (Arnstein, 1969; Collins and Ison, 2006). Furthermore, the boundary between each category of participation may not be as distinctive as a step on a ladder (Arnstein, 1969). Tritter and McCallum (2006) have also suggested that Arnstein assumes that a hierarchical element exists within participation, which is in fact untrue. Arnsteins model suggests that citizen control is the ultimate goal for participation. Arnstein has neglected the possibility that often citizens may take part in the decision making process for a range of reasons. Arnsteins Ladder implies that if citizen control is not achieved, then there is an apparent failure within the participatory process (Tritter and McCallum, 2006). Bishop and Davis (2002) suggest that this linear relationship between the levels of participation suggests a false sense of notions with regard to policies. As Bishop and Davis (2002) argue, Arnsteins Ladder suggests that variations only occur between the parties engaged with participation, and the policies that exist within societies remain constant and uninfluential. Arnsteins framework ultimately does not place any emphasis on the importance of communication, fe edback loops or the different perceptions that shape peoples views on a particular situation (Tritter and McCallum, 2006). Nonetheless, Arnsteins Ladder provides us with the image that participation has contrasting degrees and levels within a planning context. It is therefore important to examine and understand other models of participation that are evident within the literature. Pretty (1995) has suggested that the concept of participation has different meanings for different groups of people. Pretty (1995) has put forward a more comprehensive framework to characterise participation. Prettys typology of participation consists of both detail and critique (Juarez and Brown, 2008). Pretty conceptualises participation within a local context, and takes into consideration the distributions of power and interests of stakeholders. Therefore, in theory, Pretty intends to offer different interpretations with regards to the concept of participation (ref). Pretty has developed a framework of participation that distinguishes between seven typologies. The first of these types is Manipulative Participation. In this typology, citizens have no decision making ability or voice (ref). The voices of citizens are often undermined, and the flow of information and communication is exclusive to a group of professionals (ref). The second typology is Passive Participation. Within this typology, authoritarians will often announce plans of a project or the outcomes of decisions that have already been established. Citizens only participate by being told about what has already been decided by the authorities (Juarez and Brown, 2008). Participation by Consultation is the third typology identified by Pretty. In this form of participation, citizens are consulted with by authorities (ref). Pretty notes that within this type of participation, professionals, experts and authorities will agree to hear the views of citizens and other interest groups; however, t here is no obligation for these views to be ultimately taken on board (Pretty, 1995). The fourth typology identified by Pretty is Participation for Material Incentives. Citizen participation is more active within this typology. Citizens participate by contributing resources or time in exchange for other material objects (ref). Pretty uses the example of farmers, whose fields and labour are used by experts during experiments or trials. The farmer however, remains inactive with regards to the project or programme. Yet, the farmer is still considered to be participating. Pretty acknowledges that once incentives are ended, the likelihood of any participation continuing decreases (ref). Functional Participation is described by Pretty as citizens forming groups in order to specific objectives of a project or plan (Pretty, 1995). Citizens once again only participate once all major decisions have been made by the professionals or experts. Local action is however, initiated by these citizen groups, therefore activating the practices and structures within neighbourhood communit ies (Juarez and Brown, 2008). Interactive Participation is where citizens venture in joint analysis. Pretty defines interactive participation as when multiple methodologies and several objectives are synthesized to create a common goal or understanding (Juarez and Brown, 2008). In this form of participation, citizens are given the power to maintain the practices and structures established within communities (ref). The last typology identified by Pretty is Self Mobilisation. In this, citizens are active participants, taking initiative to make changes independently to any external institution or group of experts (Pretty, 1995). Collaborative actions by citizens strengthen community bonds, as well as challenging any existing inequalities in power distributions (Pretty, 1995). Prettys classifications appear to cover most of the relevant forms of participation. Several limitations however are evident within Prettys description. Pretty suggests that low level of participations are enforced by external actors. Passive participation for instance, does not only occur in instances where people have been told what to do (ref). The participants themselves can increase the likelihood of passive participation due to significant shortages in their own resources (ref). For instance, citizens may lack a sound knowledge base about a particular issue. Therefore, even a well intended and interactive project may still fail due to insufficiencies on the part of citizens (ref). This further suggests that in some cases, a lack of participation cannot always be blamed on external actors or the design of a programme. Thus, the context in which participation occurs is a sensitive and significant variable to take into consideration (ref). Prettys typology also consists of several overlapping classifications. This makes it difficult to grasp a complete definition of participation as each typology is connected to the next (ref). For instance, the idea of manipulation is not exclusive to Prettys Participation through Manipulation typology. Manipulation is also manifested within other typologies such as participation for material objects or functional participation (ref). Pretty also assumes that a minimum amount of participation is occurring within each level of typology. This is problematic analytically. Pretty perhaps intended to only consider a framework in which participation is considered. In doing so however, a typology of non participation is lost in analysis. It had been argued that manipulation can be considered as a form of non participation (Hart, 1992 cited in Pretty, 1995). This however is problematic as even a small amount of participation can still influence the decision making process, making it impossibl e for non participation to occur (ref). Both Arnsteins and Prettys typologies are normative in nature, suggesting that the ideal form of participation is only located at the end of a specific spectrum (ref). These two models highlight the subtle effects of political affairs that are embedded within the participation debate. Questions surrounding control and power arise from participatory typologies, thus making it important to consider the underlying politics surrounding participation (ref). Whites (1996) typology of participation starts to deal with issues, and begins to consider the various stresses actors engaging in participation experience. Whites typology of participation is more complex. The framework used by White explores the many dimensions and interests involved within the process of participation (White, 1996). The identities, context and interests of both individuals and groups are also explored throughout the typologies (White, 1996). Whites typology of participation is separated into categories in which one can easily identify situations where opportunities are created, or power distributions are established (White, 1996). Whites framework is complex, thus is it important to note that participation itself is characterised as a dynamic process which does not remain constant (White, 1996). White suggests that circumstances of conflict and tension arise when one set of goals or ideas are prioritised over another, mirroring the power relations that underline the processes of participation (White, 1996). Whites framework of participation is divided into four types. The first of these is nominal category participation. Within this typology, participation is considered as a form of information sharing and participant contribution in a project. This form of participation is ideally functional in form, and acts to also legitimize external actors (Ref). Consultation is also highlighted in Whites typology within instrumental participation. In this form of participation, White suggests that consultation is practised and utilized by external parties to create efficiency (White, 1996). Citizens however, see this form of participation in terms of a cost, as their contribution to a programme results in a sense of lost opportunity for the citizens themselves (ref). In representative participation, White sees participations as active decision makers. This form of participation gives a voice to the participants, allowing them to influence the outcome of projects and promote sustainability (White, 1996). Active and dynamic participation ultimately leads to Whites last category: transformative participation. This form of participation sparks self mobilization, allowing participants to assertively find the solutions to their own problems (White, 1996). Overall Whites model is particularly useful in identifying the costs and benefits different groups of people experience with different forms of participation. There is however some limitations also associated with Whites conceptualization of participation. Ref has suggested that Upon analysis of the different typologies it is evident within the literature that Arnstein, Pretty and White have all contributed towards the concept of participation. The concept however, still remains largely unknown within the literature despite the contribution of these academics and more. Cornwall (2008) has suggested that because of this, participation has become embedded with an element of malleability, allowing it to mean different things to different people, in different places. The conceptual origins of participation have been rooted in a planning and political context. Ideas however, such as collective action, consultation and shared decision making have subsequently spilled over into an environmental management context. Natural resources are often at the centre of social tensions and conflict within communities. Such settings involve the presence of several actors all attempting to influence the many decisions associated with natural resource management (ref). The academic literature surrounding natural resources management has suggested that community members and stakeholders are often unable to contribute towards environmental decisions (Rowe and Frewer, 2000). Typically within natural resources management, scientists have primarily been identified as experts within the community, and have controlled the flow of information in the context of policy development (Jasanoff, 1994).This has been argued by some academics as problematic, suggesting that the views and opinions of the ordinary citizen may be influential for environmental management (Stirling, 2006). Cortner and Shannon (1993) has therefore, suggested that participation can be utilized as a vehicle to engage with public expression, and increase the transfer of knowledge and deliberative democracy (Stirling, 2008). Participation has been recognized as an important mechanism in achieving optimum environmental outcomes (Collins and Evans, 2002). Through participation, perspectives, v alues and opinions of different stakeholders and citizens can be identified and incorporated into environmental objectives (Cortner and Shannon, 1993). Participation within natural resource management can provide opportunities for stakeholder meetings and public consultations, increasing the scope of opportunity for non experts within the community to shape environmental decision making (Landy, 1993). Participation can therefore, be seen as a forum within which local knowledge, values and norms are integrated with conventional scientific knowledge. As illustrated above, the concept of participation is one that is malleable. Various forms of participation have been characterised by academics, leading one to believe that there is no one correct way of describing such a process. Several examples within the environmental literature highlight the malleability of participation. Increases in the adoption of local knowledge and collaborative management initiatives are all evidence of participatory methods in resource management. Kakadu National Park for instance is a primary example of where the integration of local knowledge in environmental management has been achieved through participatory methods (Hill and Press, 1993). During the 1960s a partnership was enacted between the indigenous community and non indigenous community of Australias Northern Territory to manage the Kakadu National Park. The area had been classified as a World Heritage site; therefore territorial environmental management objectives were promptly established to p rotect the areas archaeological heritage (Hough, 2009). Tension and conflict however arose when government officials attempted to solely manage the regions of the park. Approximately 50% of the park was within Aboriginal territory, therefore, local communities swiftly petitioned to become involved with the decision making process (Lane, 2001). The sustainable practices associated with the local Aboriginal communities, coupled with thousands of years of local knowledge led authorities to pursue joint management of the area (Hill and Press, 1993). Interchangeable and transferable knowledge from both scientists and the local communities were collated to establish management objectives for the native flora and fauna located within the regions of the park (Howitt, 2003). The national park today is managed by traditional Aboriginal members and the Australian National Director of Parks (Hill and Press, 2003). Participatory methods are also evident within New Zealand through collaborative management approaches. The Environmental Performance Indicator (EPI) project was established as New Zealands first indigenous sustainable monitoring programme (Jollands, 2006). Jollands and Harmsworth (2008) note that Maori people are an important community within New Zealand, owning both a considerable amount of the countrys resources, as well as holding a strong political standing in comparison to other ethnic groups. Various international and national obligations have driven the need for Maori participation in New Zealand environmental management (Jollands and Harmsworth, 2008). Internationally, declarations such as the Draft Declaration of Rights for Indigenous People (United Nations, 1993) and the Declaration on the Health and Survival of Indigenous Peoples have driven the need to foster indigenous practices and beliefs (United Nations, 2002). Within New Zealand, internal drivers such as the Treaty o f Waitangi have also supported the recognition of indigenous rights (Jollands, 2006). The Treaty of Waitangi provides the foundation upon which bicultural ties and partnerships in New Zealand are established (Orange, 1990). The EPI project was established by the Ministry of Environment as a way of incorporating Maori knowledge into environmental monitoring. For many years, Maori people have had an intrinsic relationship with the natural environment (Barlow, 1991). As Harmsworth and Tipa (2005) note, Maori have had a specific perception on environmental management, consisting of stewardship and holism. Such a framework has assisted Maori people in developing interpretations of the environment that help facilitate their practices and beliefs surrounding environmental use, degradation and sustainability (Jollands and Harmsworth, 2008). The EPI project was conceived as an opportunity for Maori to contribute towards sustainable monitoring in a way that acknowledged their traditions and norms. A Maori Environmental Monitoring Group (MEMG) was introduced by the Ministry of Environment as a panel of Maori environmental experts. The members on this panel provided the EPI project leaders with information about Ma ori environmental perspectives, objectives and goals (Maori Environmental Monitoring Group, 1998). The MEMG were given the forum to contribute towards environmental decision making on issues such as wetland restoration, biodiversity and marine protection. Such a process allowed Maori people to move towards a more active role within environmental management, and allow them to influence the outcomes of the EPI project through a more collaborative approach (Jollands and Harmsworth, 2008). Though participation can occur in a variety of forms as a mechanism for enabling social interaction within environmental decisions, some critics have argued against this (Rossi, 1997; Sanders, 1997; Collins and Evans, 2002; Campbell and Currie, 2006). Critics have questioned the capability of ordinary community members in comprehending complex scientific dilemmas (Sanders, 1997). Furthermore, others critics have also suggested that the term participation is often used to disguise practices in which citizens are simply briefed or consulted with (Sanders, 1997; Rossi, 1997). A fundamental limitation associated with the malleability of participation is that a false sense of citizen involvement can often be created through tokenism (Campbell and Currie, 2006). Specific groups of people, or member of an indigenous group for instance are purposely included around the environmental decision making table by politicians. Such an act appears to provide the image of fairness on the part of gove rnments or experts; however, in reality many of these representatives still remain uninfluential (Collins and Evan, 2002). The EPI project for instance ultimately received widespread criticism for its apparent attempts at tokenism (Jollands and Harmsworth, 2008). Though a Maori panel was set up to inform the EPI directors on indigenous perspectives, the members of the MEMG were unable to take part in the final decision making stages (Clarkson et al., 2002). Furthermore, as Jollands and Harmsworth (2008) notes, in hindsight, Maori were also unable to fully comprehend the scientific components of the project, making their ability to actively take part in the projects efforts futile. Issues of tokenism and passive participation have been identified within some of the models analyzed above. Arnstein, Pretty and White all acknowledge that within the scope of participation there are varying levels of how active participation is. The malleability of participation therefore, serves more so as a limitation for the concept rather than a strength. Though the concept of participation has the ability and freedom to t ransform into a range of meanings, its lack of a concentrate definition can simply be used to describe any process involving people (Cornwall, 2008). Participation has been proven to occur within a variety of contexts and engage with several different groups of people. The issue however, is that active participation is not apparent in all of these situations. Consultation for instance has been disguised within many circumstances as a form of participation. Its use has been prevalent within environmental management especially as a way to engage with important stakeholders and interest groups. Consultation however, as demonstrated with the case of the EPI project, is simply another name to describe tokenism (Clarkson et al., 2002). The actual interests of citizens are ignored within programme objectives, yet such practices are accepted and continued because they are categorised under the heading of participation (Jollands, 2006). As Gardiner and Parata (1999) suggests, there was a severe lack of clarity regarding the EPI programme. The information presented to Maori at the consultation meetings was often disorganized and prepared in a manner that was insensitive to Maori world views and customs. Therefore it is not surprising that Maori communities were confused about the definition of natural indicators and the science used in western forms of environmental monitoring (Ministry for the Environment, 1998). The EPI programme had demonstrated some attempts to include Maori in environmental monitoring. Critics have generally suggested that the EPI programme was superficial because the MfE was not willing to hand over control over resources to the MEMG (Jollands and Harmsworth, 2008). Due to such criticisms, the MfE had begun to reduce its focus to involve Maori in environmental monitoring. Much of the government and Ministrys efforts to include Maori and nurture indigenous monitoring methods had dissolved after the completion of the EPI programme (Downs and Clarkson, 2000). The EPI programme presented several issues that highlighted the initial difficulties of incorporating Maori in environmental monitoring. The MfE essentially set up the EPI programme with the intention of including a range of perspectives from important stakeholders. While its intentions were sound, the programme ultimately disallowed for the participation from other groups or individuals because EPI project leaders were unwilling to share power over resources, funding and decision making (Clarkson et al., 2002). The failures associated with the EPI programme can also be attributed to the principles under which the project was initiated. From the onset, western scientific notions and environmental thinking provided the basis for the programme. Therefore from the beginning issues in attempting to incorporate local knowledge should have been conceivable (Downs and Clarkson, 2000) Arnsteins Ladder is one of the first frameworks within the academic literature which characterises the different typologies of participation. Arnsteins typology of participation within a planning context provided an important pillar within the literature for characterising different stages of participation. Since Arnsteins framework, several other authors such Pretty and White have developed other various typologies to characterise participation. Upon evaluation it is clear that participation cannot be situated within one clear definition. Arnstein, Pretty and White all offer valuable interpretations for charactering participation. Like any framework, each of these authors typologies is limited by certain constraints. Arnsteins ladder has been criticised as being over simplistic and normative in nature. Prettys typology of participation is more detailed, and considers the interests of all the actors involved within the process of participation. Prettys framework however, consists of too many overlapping typologies, making it harder to distinguish between specific classifications of participation. Whites typology of participation . As Cornwall (2008) has suggested, the concept of participation is malleable, denoting itself to almost any form of social interaction between groups of people. Participation has been suggested within the environmental literature as an important mechanism for generating appropriate environmental outcomes. Participation within natural resource management however, has been used to mask instances of tokenism and passive participation. The malleability of participation is ultimately a hindrance. People can transform the definition of participation to describe a variety of social processes occurring within a society. A limitation to this however, is that the term can be applied to cover up processes such as tokenism and consultation, which are ultimately processes which promote non participation or passive participation.